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Vitamin A is essential for normal tissue growth and skeletal development. It is critical for night vision and the health of cells in the body. Retinol is an antiopthalmic and anti-infection vitamin. It may be useful in certain heart diseases, diabetes, conjunctivitis, glaucoma, night vision, tooth and gum disorders and alcoholism.
Factors known to influence Vitamin A absorption and/or utilization include, sodium benzoate, cortisol, impaired liver function, impaired bile production and high and also low protein diets. Antacids containing aluminum may lead to low absorption of Vitamin A. *Also* low fat diets (less or equal to 5g/day) reduced amounts of retinol absorbed, BUT the amount of beta-caratene absorbed increased above the normal 1:6 ratio (see below).
Vitamin A for the most part is not excreted, hence prolonged large doses of Vitamin A can lead to toxicity. Toxic symptoms may include, headaches, diarrhea, nausea, skin problems and enlargement of the spleen, liver or lymph nodes.
Sisters - Zinc, Iron, Vitamin C, Vitamin E
Cousins - Calcium, Vitamin B2 (riboflavin),
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin), growth
hormone and thyroxine and
testosterone
Aunts - Retinol-binding protein and transthyretin
Officially Recommended Daily Allowance -
- 5,000 IU (International Units) OR
1,000 -1,500 RE (Retinoid Equivalents)
High Dose - 10,000 to 20,000 IU OR
3,000 to 6,000 RE
Super Dose - 25,000 to 30,000 IU OR
7,500 to 9,000RE
(Total + Supplements)
Start of Toxicity as low as 50,000IU OR 15,000RE
Originally 1 IU of Vitamin A activity was defined
as equal either to 0.30ug of all-trans retinol OR
0.60ug of all trans-beta-carotene. That gave 1ug
of retinol equivalent to 2ug of beta-carotene. Later
it was found that it was better to assume 1ug retinol
was equivalent to 6ug of beta-carotene and that
most other carotenoids were only half as effective
as beta-carotene. So it is now common to define
*retinol equivalents* (RE) as: 1RE equals
1ug of all-trans retinols OR
6ug of all-trans beta-carotene OR
12ug of all other retinol forming carotenoids.
The research on carotenoids is a very active field and I expect to see much more *quality* information, becoming available in the next 2 years. I will probably have to do a major rewrite of the above vignette, within the year.
The B Vitamin complex and its "friends and allies" are
very closely linked and should ALWAYS be taken as a
balanced mix. Unfortunated balanced mixes seldom
come out of a pill bottle.
CHIEF USES OF THIAMINE IN OUR BODIES:
FACTORS THAT MAY INCREASE B1 REQUIREMENTS
TOTAL AMOUNTS NEEDED:
It is usually not a sensible approach to daily nutrition
for healthy individuals to take "high" amounts all the time.
It is also usually not a reasonable approach to nutrition
to take "Super" amounts all the time, even if chronic
health conditions exist, which seem to benefit from the
administration of B Vitamins. However, there are always
exceptions. BUT PLEASE REMEMBER, NO B VITAMIN
IS AN ISLAND UNTO ITSELF - as always remember the
"sisters, cousins and aunts".
SISTERS - The other B Vitamins and their "friends and
allies" - a "balance" is essential
Most of the above functions of riboflavin are due to its
being the flavin in flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
and flavin mononucleotide (FMN), which catalyze many
oxidation-reduction reactions in the body. An important
example is the conversion of trytophan to niacin which
is catalyzed by a FAD-dependent hydroxylase. Vitamin
B2 is also involved in the release of adenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary.
Riboflavin is found in legumes, lentils, grains, nuts, dairy
products, many green vegetables, brewer's yeast, meats
and avocados. Depletion factors include, alcohol, birth
control pills, antibiotics, excessive use of sugar and coffee.
Vitamin B2 is often low in hypothyroidism, liver diseases
and chronic diarrheas.
Riboflavin is essential as part of the Vitamin B complex,
and is of great use (with Vitamin B3 (niacin) and the
essential amino acid, leucine) in the deficiency disease,
pellagra, in carpal tunnel syndrome (with Vitamin B6
(pyridoxine)), in pregnancy and lactation and other
conditions, where depletion is occurring or has occurred.
Vitamin B2 is frequency marginally deficient in the elderly.
Sisters - Vitamin B1 (thiamine), B6 (pyridoxine) and iron
Recommended Dietary Allowance - 1.7mg/day
The term niacin, is used both for nicotinic acid and nicotinamide
(niacinamide). Nicotinamide functions as a component of two
coenzymes, NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and
NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). NAD
and NADP are present in all cells and participate in many functions
such as, sugar and fatty acid metabolism and tissue respiration.
Niacin is a vasodilator, that is it is able to increase circulation,
for example, in cramped legs and reduce blood pressure. Niacin
can often help to lower cholesterol and triglycerides (the trihydric
alcoholic esters of the three fatty acids, stearic, oleic and palmitic),
and hence be of use in some heart problems. Nicotinic acid can
cause flushing of the skin.
The major deficiency disease caused by lack of niacin, is called
pellagra, which can occur in diets high in corn. Pellagra is
characterized by dermatitis, dermal membrane ulcerations and
even mental disturbances. Niacin deficiencies may occur in the
elderly even when the dietary intake appears to be adequate. This
may be due to several factors, which we only partially understand.
Natural sources of niacin include: meat, brewer's yeast, green
vegetables, legumes (including peanuts), nuts (almonds, cashews,
walnuts), avocados, dates, figs, wheat germ and molasses.
Depleting factors include: birth control pills, alcohol, stress,
antibiotics
and excess consumption of corn, coffee, sugars and starches.
Sisters: Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) and folic acid
Officially Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) - 20mg/day
Some factors that increase the amounts needed by
the body include, stress and alcohol. Cooking may
destroy up to 44% of this Vitamin.
Food sources of Pantothenic acid include, wheat germ,
brewer's yeast, whole grains, organ meats, legumes,
fish (salmon, mackerel, herring and also clams), carrots,
avocados, cheese, milk and mushrooms.
This vitamin can be helpful for stress, fatigue, some types
of muscle cramping and it may speed some types of wound
healing. With these latter two, other nutrients usually, play a
more central role, with Vitamin B5 as an adjunct.
Sisters - Folic acid, biotin, niacin (Vitamin B3) and
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin).
RDA (Officially Recommended Daily Allowance) - 10mg/day
NOTE: As protein intake increases, the
requirement for Vitamin B6 increases too.
Vitamin B6 has been used to reestablish dream
recall on waking BUT high doses at night or
overdoses may produce nightmares or
vivid-restless dreams.
NOTE: Depletion factors include: Use of birth
control pills, and at least 40 drugs such as
L-dopa, cortisone, estrogens, penicillamine,
isoniazid, apresoline and alazine. Excess iron,
and also food processing and heat and light
tend to destroy pyridoxine.
Vitamin B6 is often helpful in pregnancy, lactation,
to decrease post-operative pain and swelling, during
stress, during irradiation treatments and taken
together with Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) for carpal tunnel
syndrome. Vitamin B6 is important if depleting drugs,
see above, are taken. Pyridoxine is often effective
in relieving many of the symptoms of PMS.
CAUTION: Very Large CHRONIC doses
(100mg/day) MAY cause reversible peripheral
neuritis - that is, numbness of feet and hands
and even unsteadiness in walking.
Natural sources include: Brewer's yeast, whole
grains, leafy green vegetables, salmon, herring,
mackerel, egg yolks, walnuts and wheat germ.
Sisters: Vitamin B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin),
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), Vitamin E,
zinc, magnesium and folic acid
Officially Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA)
- 2mg/day
Cobalamin is important in the biosynthesis
of purines, choline and the sulfo-amino acid,
methionine. It functions with folic acid in the
regulation and formation of red blood cells.
Vitamin B12 is important in the tissue
deposition of Vitamin A and helps maintain
the health of nerve-cell membranes and
growth hormones. This Vitamin can be
beneficial in certain neuropsychiatric
disorders.
An apparent or actual Vitamin B12
deficiency, may cause changes in the
nervous system, such as, soreness and
weakness in the arms and legs, including
diminished reflex response, limb jerking and
numbness. It may also be related to mental
slowness, confusion, memory problems,
neuritis, intolerance to light or noise, and
hallucinations. It has also been linked to
menstrual disturbances and certain body
odors.
The major disease associated with Vitamin
B12 deficiency is pernicious anemia. In this
disease Vitamin B12 cannot be absorbed by
the gastric mucosa, because a key co-factor
is not secreted. One symptom of cobalamin
deficiency is an inflamed red tongue. Vitamin
B12 deficiency may take years to develop.
Vitamin B12 is not well absorbed orally and
hence, it is normally given medically, by injection.
Cobalamin is mainly derived from animal protein
and microorganisms, but not from plant sources.
However, it is often wrongly stated that *all*
vegetarians are candidates for Vitamin B12
deficiency. If you are a vegetarian who eats,
eggs, milk or milk products such as, cheese
or fish or sea foods you will be receiving Vitamin
B12 in your food!
The following are some of the factors which may
deplete your body stores of cobalamin, include,
aspirin and its substitutes, codeine, oral
contraceptives, dilantin, laxatives, aging and
maybe, also smoking.
Increasing the body load of Vitamin B12 may be
useful in pregnancy and lactation, old age, and
in certain types neuropathies and muscle fatigue,
It should be noted that in the disease, polycythemia,
real or apparent overdosing of Vitamin B12 may
have occurred. Vitamin B12 is a "very touchy"
substance, the body balancing system has a fairly
fine range between too little and too much, mainly
because of all the interlinking with the "sisters,
cousins and the aunts".
Sisters (substances closely related to Vitamin B12):
Carotene, nicotinamide (form of Vitamin B3),
deficiency of Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folic
acid (but supplementing with folic acid in
borderline Vitamin B12 deficiency may
exacerbate the cobalamin deficiency),
biotin, iron, magnesium and chromium
Cousins (substances related, but more remotely):
calcium, Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid),
copper and zinc
Aunts (key body systems involved with Vitamin B12);
Nerve-cell membranes, red blood cells and
bone marrow
The Official Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)
- 2ug/day (2mcg/day) - ORAL
Vitamin C is essential in the formation of
adrenalin and is involved in the absorption and
utilization of non-heme iron. Vitamin C is also
important in the functioning of leukocytes (white
blood cells); macrophages (the vaccuum cleaners
of the body); immune responses; wound healing
and allergic reactions. It also helps maintain the
integrity of tooth dentin and bone tissues. Ascorbic
acid may prevent the formation of carcingenic
nitrosamines by reducing nitrites in our bodies.
Vitamin C is also a detoxicant of some heavy
metals and pesticides.
Vitamin C is absorbed into the body by a sodium
dependent mechanism. At low doses of Vitamin C
absorption is nearly complete, whereas over the
usual food range (30-60mg Vitamin C per day)
the absorption drops to 80-90%. As the daily
dose of Vitamin C is increased, the body levels
and stores *plateau*. This plateau is probably
reached for most people with an intake of 200-
300mg per day (unless one has a genetic defect).
Vitamin C and its various metabolites are excreted
mainly in the urine. At daily intakes of up to, about
100mg per day, oxalate is the main product, but at
higher intake levels, Vitamin C is *mainly* excreted.
While many people habitually ingest 1gram or more
of Vitamin C per day, without developing any side-
effects, some adverse effects have been reported.
The magnitude of the risk and the percentage of
people who could be intolerant to *routine/habitual*
high doses is unknown.
Natural sources of Vitamin C include citric fruits
(including the historic British Navy's lime juice -
hence "limeys"), pineapple, strawberries, rose hips,
and tomatoes.
Depletion factors include, losses during food
preparation, estrogens, environmental pollution
and smoking (estimates suggest that each cigarette
may use up about 25mg of Vitamin C).
Sisters - Iron, zinc, folic acid
Officially Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
- 60-90mg per day
Natural sources include exposure to sunlight,
fish oils, fish (herring, salmon, mackerel, tuna,
sardines) and egg yolks.
Factors that deplete the body's stores of Vitamin
D, include too little sunlight, very low levels of fats
and bile (which are necessay for the intestinal
absorption of Vitamin D), excess Vitamin A,
excess potassium, excess fluoride, excess cortisol,
excess cortisone.
Sisters - Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus
One international unit (IU) of Vitamin D is defined
as the activity of 0.025ug (micrograms or mcg) of
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in certain bioassays.
Hence the biological activity of Vitamin D3
(cholecalciferol) is 40IU per microgram. The
activity of calcidiol (25(OH)D) and calcitriol
(1,25(OH)2D) are approximately 1.5 and 5 times
greater than that of Vitamin D, respectively.
Vitamin D occurs as Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
and/or as Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) in foods and
fortified products. The various forms of Vitamin D
are generally not identified separately and the total
is usually cited as IU or micrograms (ug or mcg) of
Vitamin D3 (choleciferol), which is called just
Vitamin D for simplicity.
Deficiency of Vitamin D may occur in persons
exposed to little sunlight and who are very strict
vegetarians or rigidly exclude most fats. The
intake of Vitamin D for these adults may be as
low as the 70-100IU (1.75-2.5ug) Vitamin D3
per day.
Unfortunately, we actually do not know as much
as we think we know about Vitamin D, since the
sunlight factor always causes complications in
any calculations and even in the measurements.
The RDA (Officially Recommended Daily Allowance)
for persons over the age the age of 12 months is
normally given as 400IU (10ug) Vitamin D3 per day.
Toxicity levels for young children have been observed
for consumptions as low as 1,800IU (45ug) Vitamin D3
per day.
Deficiency Toxicity - 100IU (2.5ug) per day
The most active tocopherol is the alpha form and the units
for Vitamin E are expressed as alpha-tocopherol
equivalents or alpha-TE. If the activity of alpha-tocopherol
(alpha-TE) is designated as 1, the beta form is 0.5 of this
activity, the gamma 0.1 and the delta 0.3. When the
vitamin is synthesized the 4 l-tocopherols also appear and
the product is called all-rac-tocopherol (formerly dl-tocopherol).
The acitivity of 1mg of the acetate of all-rac-tocopherol is
equivalent to 1 IU of vitamin E or 0.74 alpha-TE.
Vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin and is best know as an
antioxidant. The tocopherols are mainly found in cellular
membranes associated with polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) in phospholipids. Vitamin E is a primary body
defense against potentially harmful oxidations and in this
process is aided by selenium as a component of the
enzyme, glutathione peroxidase and Vitamin C (ascorbic
acid). In cases of deficiency, neurological and muscular
abnormalities may develop.
There are many studies which indicate the dietary values
of Vitamin E and it may be helpful in diets high in processed
foods or polyunsaturated fats and in some older people,
however, in most instances, definitive studies are lacking.
Vitamin E occurs naturally in whole wheat, almonds, peanuts,
alfalfa, barley and lima beans and many other food sources.
Depletion factors include chronic stress, impaired fat absorption
and cooking losses. PLEASE NOTE: meats, fish, animal fats
and most fruits and vegetables have *little* Vitamin E, whereas
leafy vegetables supply appreciable amounts of this vitamin.
Sisters - Selenium, Vitamin C and glutathione (see vignette
on glutathione)
I think the following listing will be subject to change in the fairly
near future:
Vitamin K is sometimes, nicknamed the anti-
hemorrhagic vitamin. It is vital for blood clotting
and the functioning of the liver, kidney, sketal
muscle and bone. It is also important in glycogen
conversion, which is the form carbohydrates are
stored in the body.
Factors that can deplete levels of Vitamin K, include
chronic use of aspirin, antibiotics, anticoagulants,
such as coumarin, mineral oil, also bile obstruction
and liver damage.
Sisters: Calcium, iron, Vitamin E
Officially Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)
- 45-80ug (45-80mcg) Vitamin K per day
Biotin is synthesizd by the intestinal bacteria
hence, *antibiotics, sulfa and other drugs*
that affect the intestinal microflora reduce the
availability of biotin. Other factors which deplete
biotin include the protein avidin (present in raw
eggs), desthiobiotin, choline, rancid fats and the
cooking process.
Large doses of biotin have been helpful in
children with deficiencies in biotin-dependent
enzymes, certain mental development
retardational diseases, inflamation of the
cornea and defects in T-cell and B-cell
immunities.
Natural sources of biotin included, Brewer's
yeast, whole grains, legumes, mackerel,
salmon, sardines, nuts and royal jelly.
Sisters: Manganese, thiamine (Vitamin B1)
choline
Officially Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
Choline may be helpful in the control of cholesterol,
memory loss, some liver diseases and some heart and
atherosclerotic problems.
Factors influencing the depletion of choline include, sulfa
drugs, alcohol, estrogens and cooking.
Natural sources of choline include lecithin, Brewer's yeast,
wheat germ, soybeans and egg yolks.
Sisters: Vitamin B complex, particularly, Inositol
and Biotin
Officially Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
Folate is crucial for mental and emotional health, including
depression and chronic fatigue syndrome. It is vital in
pregnancy to prevent congenital malformations, including
spina bifida and neural tube defects. Folate may also be
helpful in cases of infertility. There is research showing
that folic acid may help prevent strokes and heart disease.
Deficiencies in folate may be fairly common in many people.
Folate deficiency has been noted in sprue, mental illness,
leukopenia (reduction of white blood cells), thrombocytopenia
(decrease in blood platelets) and spontaneous abortion.
The RDA was formerly 400ug of folate. Depleting factors
include, certain oral contraceptives, high doses of Vitamin C,
alcohol, emotional stress and certain medications.
Supplementing with folic acid when there is a Vitamin B12
deficiency, exaserbates the folic acid deficiency and also
mask the Vitamin B12 deficiency. Also supplementing
with folate may increase zinc excretion, thus lowering serum
zinc.
Natural sources include, spinach, lentils, pinto beans,
asparagus, broccoli, okra and brussels sprouts, brewer's
yeast, salmon, tuna, egg yolks, oats, rye, wheat and nuts.
Sisters: Vitamin B12, Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), Vitamin C, zinc
Officially Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) -
Large amounts of caffeine and excess water intake may
deplete the intake of inositol, since the intestinal flora
synthesize inositol. Other sources of inositol include, Brewer's
yeast, lecithin, soybeans, legumes, nuts, whole grains and
fruit (particularly citrus) juices.
No level of inositol has been set for humans. The addition of
myo-inositol to the diets of patients with diabetic neuropathy
was found to restored their nerve conduction velocity, the full
meaning of this is not understood. Supplemental inositol also
appears sometimes, to help in lowering blood cholesterol.
Sisters: Calcium, Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine), Folic acid,
Choline, Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
Officially Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
For internal use, PABA functions best when used together
with zinc, choline, linoleic acid and the B Vitamin complex.
In the body PABA is depleted by some processed foods,
alcohol, estrogens and sulfa drugs. The water soluble
PABA is found in Brewer's Yeast, wheat germ, blackstrap
molasses, bran, rice and organ meats.
Supplements of internal PABA are often in the 100mg per
day range, but it is probably better to obtain it through the
foods we eat. Externally is a different story!!!
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B VITAMINS
Introduction
The main components of the B Vitamin complex are
B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B5
(pantothenic acid), B6 (pyridoxine), B12 (cobalamin),
and "their close friends and allies", folic acid, biotin,
choline, inositol and PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid).
All these substances are water soluble. Hence the
body only stores them to a limited extent and orally
they can for the most part, be considered to be
non-toxic.
VITAMIN B1 (Thiamine of Thiamin)
DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Pregnancy & Lactation
Boosting Antibiotic administration
Alcoholism treatment
High carbohydrate intake
Heavy exercise
Hypothyroidism
Memory loss treatment
Multiple sclerosis treatment and
Herpes Zoster treatment
The best known is traditionally called, beriberi. Many
Second World War POWs developed this disease and
it still occurs in third world countries.
SOME NATURAL SOURCES
Brewer's yeast, blackstrap molasses, miso, tofu, whole
grains, brown rice, wheat germ, fish, meat, potatoes,
oranges, cauliflower, etc
Male Adult Officially Recomended -- 1.5mg/per day
High Amounts -- 50mg/day
"Super" Amounts -- 100mg/day
COUSINS - Magnesium, phosphate and molybdenum(?)
AUNTS - Proteins and Carbohydrates
VITAMIN B2 (Riboflavin)
Riboflavin is a water soluble vitamin and hence has
to be given in very high quantities to be toxic, but as
the old saying goes, "enough is as good as a feast".
It acts as a co-enzyme in cell respiration and hence
is essential for growth, health of skin and eyes and
general vigor and well being. Vitamins B1 (thiamine)
and B2 are involved in the functioning of thyroxine and
insulin, whereas Vitamin B2 is important in the
maintenance of glutathione, one of the free radical
damage protectors.
Cousins - Vitamin B3 (niacin), the rest of the Vitamin B
complex, particularly B3 (niacin), copper, phosphate
Aunts - Flavin complex systems
High Amounts - 50mg/day
"Super" Amounts - 100mg/day
VITAMIN B3 (Niacin)
Niacin is a water soluble vitamin and the amount needed
by the mammalian body is in part, met by the conversion
of dietary tryptophan to niacin. By convention, 60mg of
tryptophan (from 6g of protein) is considered to be converted
(equivalent) to 1mg of niacin.
Cousins: chromium and zinc
Aunts: NAD and NADP and their systems
High Amounts per day - 50mg
"Super" Amounts per day - 100-250mg
TOXIC amounts can be as low as 2-3g however skin flushing, increased pulse and
breathing rates, etc, can occur in some individuals at 500mg/day or even
lower.
Usually this latter occurs when the source of niacin is nicotinic acid.
VITAMIN B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
Vitamin B5 is essential for the functioning of the
adrenal glands, particularly the cortex, and it
increases the production of cortisone and other
adrenal hormones. Hence, it is sometimes known
as the *antistress* vitamin. In addition, pantothenic
acid is part of the coenzyme A complex, which is a key
factor in fat acid metabolism and in energy release from
carbohydrates. Vitamin B5 is involved in acetylcholine
and in hemoglobin, bile, steroid, cholesterol and antibody
syntheses. This Vitamin also promotes amino acid
uptake.
Cousins - Chromium, zinc and iron
Aunts - Coenzyme A (fat and energy metabolism) and
adrenal systems
High Dose - 20-25mg/day
"Super" Dose - 50mg/day
VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine)
Pyridoxine is involved in the metabolism of
fats (lipids) and carbohydrates. It is
necessary for the formation of carbohydrates
from amino acids, fatty acids and related
entities and also, the production of fatty acids,
bile acids, porphyrins and neural hormones.
Vitamin B6 acts as a coenzyme in the formation
of red blood cells (erythrocytes) and in amino
acid metabolism, including the very important
conversion of trytophan to niacin. In the brain,
pyridoxine helps the conversion of glutamic
acid to gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Cousins: Vitamin B3 (niacin), B12 (cobalamin),
cobalt, potassium, copper, phosphate,
biotin, epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Aunts: Amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids (fats).
High Doses: 10-25mg/day
"Super" Doses: 50mg/day
VITAMIN B12 (Cobalamin).
Vitamin B12 has the element, cobalt, as
part of its structure. The structure of this
Vitamin was worked out at Cambridge,
England in the the early-mid 1950s. When
one of the people involved in this project,
described to me and my classmates how
an inorganic molecule (cobalt) was required
to make the "great organics" work, I decided
on the spot, I wanted to do research on the
uses and workings of inorganic trace elements.
And this I have done for the last 43 years!
High levels - 5-10ug/day (5-10mcg/day) - ORAL
Super levels - 20-25ug/day (20-25mcg/day) - ORAL
VITAMIN C (Ascorbic Acid)
Vitamin C is a water soluble antioxidant that
can be synthesized by many mammals, *but*
not by humans. Dietary deficiency can lead
to scurvy, in which collagen, a key protein in
our connective tissues, is weakened leading
to hemorrhaging of small blood vessels
(capillaries). Vitamin C is involved in many
reactions with many other biologically active
compounds, including proline and lysine (in
the formation of collagen); dopamine (with
the formation of norepinephrine); tryptophan
(to 5-hydroxytryptophan); folic acid; tyrosine;
histamine; phenylalanine; corticosteroids;
neuroendocrine peptides and bile acids.
Cousins - Calcium, magnesium, Vitamins A, B5,
B6, B12, A, E, K, testosterone, growth
hormones
Aunts - Blood and collagen systems
Routine/Habitual High Doses - 500-750mg per day
Routine/Habitual Super Doses - 1gm (1,000mg) per day
VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL)
Calciferol is a fat soluble vitamin formed in
human skin mainly by exposure to ultraviolet
(UV) light, which catalyzes the synthesis of
Vitamin D3 (or cholecalciferol) from 7-dehydro-
cholesterol. (Vitamin D2 ( or ergocalciferol)
is the product of UV-light conversion of ergo-
sterol in plants). In humans, Vitamin D is
particularly important in bone formation,
since it aids in the regulation of the absorption,
excretion and metabolism of calcium and
phosphorus. Among the metabolites of
Vitamin D are calcidiol ( or 25(OH)D) which
is formed in the liver and then it is further
metabolized (hydroxylated) in the kidney to
calcitriol (or 1,25(OH)2D) and 24,25 (OH)2D
(24,25dihydroxyvitaminD). The Vitamin D
status in the body is measured primarily by
the levels of calcidiol and calcitriol in the blood
plasma.
Cousins - Vitamin A, Vitamin B3 (niacin),
potassium, fluoride
Aunts - Bone (and teeth) formation, also fats and
bile needed. Note: tight Vitamin D-calcium-
phosphorus interaction.
RDA - 200IU (5ug) per day
High levels - 600IU (15ug) per day
Super levels - 1,000IU (25ug) per day
Toxic (adults) - 3,000IU (75ug) per day (estimated)
Toxic (children) - 1,500-2000IU (38-50ug) per day
VITAMIN E (Tocopherols)
In nature there are 4 d-tocopherols called:
RRR-alpha-tocopherol (formerly d-alpha-tocopherol)
RRR-beta-tocopherol (formerly d-beta-tocopherol)
RRR-gamma-tocopherol (formerly d-gamma-tocopherol)
RRR-delta-tocopherol (formerly d-delta-tocopherol).
Cousins - Vitamins A, B6, B12 and K, folic acid and zinc
Aunts - PUFA in phospholipids
Officially Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
- 8-12 mg alpha-TE (10 mg d-alpha tocopherol)
or 15 IU per day
High Level - 150 mg alpha-TE or 200 IU per day
Super Level - 300 mg alpha-TE or 400 IU per day
Toxic Level -1200mg alpha-TE or 1600 IU per day
VITAMIN K
There are two forms of the fat soluble, Vitamin K -
K1 (phylloquinone) which is found in alfalfa and
green vegetables and K2 (menaquinones)
which is produced by micro-organisms in the
intestinal tract. There is a third synthetic form of
Vitamin K called K3 (menadione). Animal tissues
contain both Vitamin K1 and K2.
Cousins: Manganese, copper, Vitamins A and C
Aunts: Clotting proteins, phospholipids
High levels seem to be about 400ug (400mcg) per day
Amounts of Vitamin K in the normal diet seem to
be of this latter order (400ug) and hence NO
supplementation would seem to be appropriate, except
in special cases.
BIOTIN
Biotin is a sulfur-containing amino acid
coenzyme, it is involved in unsaturated fatty
acid metabolism and glycogen manufacture.
Thus it is important in the sex glands, nerves,
bone, skin and hair.
Cousins: Other B vitamins
Aunts: Amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids
- 300ug (300mcg) per day
High Amounts - 500ug (500mcg) per day
Super Amounts - 1mg (1,000ug) per day
As yet, no known toxicity. Some "Vitamin pills" contain
much higher amounts of biotin. This should change,
since some is good, *but more usually is NOT better*.
CHOLINE
Choline is called a lipotropic substance, which means
it accelerates the removal of fats and cholesterol from
the liver and also decreases the storage of excess fats.
Choline combines with fatty acids and phosphoric acid
to form lecithin. Choline is oxidized to form betaine, an
important methyl donor. A derivative of choline, namely,
acetylcholine, functions as a neurotransmitter and is
critical in the memory function and in the health of the
myelin sheath of the nerves and also in the production of
bile acids and the prevention of gall stones.
Cousins: Methionine
Aunts: Fats and fatty acids
- None for humans
Average Daily Intake (Food) - 400-900mg per day
High Supplement Amounts - 500mg (500mcg) per day
Super Supplement Amounts - 1000-3000mg per day
As yet, no known toxicity.
FOLIC ACID
Folate is the naturally occurring form of folic acid. It is
water soluble and functions as a coenzyme in DNA and
RNA (nucleic acid) synthesis and metabolism.
Cousins: Vitamin B3 (niacin), B5 (pantothenic acid), biotin, iron,
copper estradiol, testerone, growth hormone.
Aunts: Nucleic acid synthesis and metabolism
200ug (200mcg) folate per day
400ug (400mcg) per day during pregnancy)
High levels 600ug (600mcg) per day
Super levels 1000ug (1mg) per day
INOSITOL
There are 9 inositol isomers. The *only* one of
importance in animal metabolism is *myo-inositol*, a
cyclic alcohol, closely related chemically to glucose. It
is mainly found as a constituent of phospholipids in
biomembranes. Myo-inositol triphosphate is an important
part of the hormonal stimulation for mobilizing intracellular
calcium. Inositol also functions with choline as a constituent
of lecithin, to aid in the movement of fats from the liver to
cells. Inositol helps reduce cholesterol in the blood and
generally helps in fat metabolism. Inositol is present in large
quantities in the spinal cord (and its nerves) and the brain.
It also seems to play a role in the maturation of sperm cells.
Cousins: PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid), methionine,
betaine
Aunts: Fats and fatty acids, phospholipids.
- None for humans
High Supplement Amounts - 500mg per day
Super Supplement Amounts - 1000mg per day
As yet, no known toxicity.
PABA (Para-Aminobenzoic Acid)
PABA is a component of folic acid and stimulates the
intestinal bacteria to produce folic acid. PABA functions
as a coenzyme in the formation of red blood cells, the
utilization of protein and the assimilation of Vitamin B5
(pantothenic acid). PABA is *best* known for its external
use as an ultraviolet radiation dermal shield, that is as a
"sun screen".